these being the commanders of the phalanx on either side” (Polybius, The Histories 5.83). The battle was opened by the war elephants. The Ptolemaic elephants were African forest elephants ...

As a special measure of defence against the Romans' elephants he had trained a phalanx of heavy-armed warriors whose shields and helmets he had had studded with sharp iron nails. Also, in order to ...