How do guard cells change their volume to control this opening and closing? They do so by changing the osmotic pressure of their vacuoles, which then either take up or lose water, and consequently ...

The pressure is equalized by adding buffer to the two output ports and then adding a sample containing the cells to the input port. The cells are manipulated with electro-osmotic flow, which is ...

It works primarily by an osmotic effect but also has other effects ... Volume expansion improves blood pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure. Improved perfusion yields better oxygenation ...